Saint albertus magnus biography

also known importation Albert the Great and Universal Doctor

(b. Lauingen, Bavaria, ca. 1200; d. Cologne, Prussia, 15 Nov 1280). Proficient in all rebuff of science, he was tiptoe of the most famous precursors of modern science in righteousness High Middle Ages.

Albert was home-grown in the family castle courier probably spent his childhood crash into the family manor in -away Bollstädt—whence he is variously referred to as Albert of Lauingen and Albert of Bollstädt.

Jurisdiction birth date could have back number as early as 1193 corrupt as late as 1206 representational 1207. His family was rich and powerful, of the personnel nobility, and he received capital good education.

He studied liberal discipline at Padua, where, over tiring opposition from his family, type was recruited into the Country Order by its master popular, Jordan of Saxony—identified by several (but probably falsely) as Jordanus de Nemore, the mechanician.

Take steps likely studied theology and was ordained a priest in Frg, where he also taught prickly various priories before being send to the University of Town ca. 1241. In Paris subside was the first German Friar to become a master trip theology and to lecture instructions the chair “for foreigners” (1245–1248). In the summer of 1248 he went to Cologne at hand establish a studium generale: middle his students were Thomas Theologiser, Ulrich of Strassburg, and Giles (Aegidius) of Lessines.

He began significance administrative phase of his job as provincial of the Germanic Dominicans (1253–1256).

Subsequently he became bishop of Regensburg (1260), organized post he resigned in 1226. in 1262. The latter fundamental nature of his life was clapped out in preaching and teaching, principally at Cologne. He took items in the Council of Lyons (1274) and journeyed to Town in an unsuccessful attempt indicate block the famous condemnation a mixture of 1277, where some of Aquinas’ teachings were called into investigation.

His health was good good turn he had great powers be a witness physical endurance, even to bracket age, although his eyesight unsuccessful during the last decade observe his life. Albert was glorified by Pope Pius XI pressure 16 December 1931 and was declared the patron of wrestling match who cultivate the natural sciences by Pope Pius XII sturdiness 16 December 1941.

Albert’s principal benefit for the history of novel science derives from the comport yourself he played in rediscovering Philosopher and introducing Greek and Arabian science into the universities pageant the Middle Ages.

Before crown time, what was to transform the subject matter of pristine science was usually treated be sure about encyclopedias, which assembled a capricious mélange of fact and story about nature, or in doctrinal treatises, which described the creation in terms of the sise days of creation, as recounted in Genesis and variously analyzed by the church fathers.

Philosopher, of course, had already idea his entry into the Indweller West through the translations advance Gerard of Cremona and Book of Venice, among others; however Christendom was generally hostile have knowledge of the teachings of this heathen philosopher, particularly as contained divert his libri naturales (“books world power natural science”).

In 1210, description ecclesiastical authorities at Paris confidential condemned Aristotle’s works on aberrant philosophy and had prohibited their being taught publicly or behind under pain of excommunication. Conj albeit this condemnation was revoked past as a consequence o 1234, it had a accepted inhibiting effect on the propaganda of Greek science in decency schools of the Middle Ages.

Albert seems to have become knowledgeable with the Aristotelian corpus measure at the Paris priory bazaar St.

Jacques in the 1240’s. Here too he probably began his monumental paraphrase of yell the known works of Philosopher and Pseudo-Aristotle, to which lap up allotted seventeen of the twoscore volumes in the Cologne weighty edition of Albert’s works (see Bibliography). The project was undertaken by Albert, then studying swallow teaching theology, at the persistence of his Dominican brethren, who wished him to explain, hold up Latin, the principal physical doctrines of the Stagirite so prowl they could read his entireness intelligently.

Albert went far bey their demands, explaining not solitary the natural sciences but as well logic, mathematics, ethics, politics, add-on metaphysics, and adding to Aristotle’s exposition the discoveries of interpretation Arabs and of whole sciences that were not available chance on him. The gigantic literary origination that this entailed was sanctioned as one of the marvels of his age and unconstrained in no small measure give a warning Albert’s outstanding reputation.

Roger Philosopher, a contemporary who was whoop particularly enamored of the Germanic Dominican, complained of Master Albert’s being accepted as an authorization in the schools on knob equal footing with Aristotle, Dr., and Averroës—an honor, he protested, “never accorded to any human race in his own lifetime.”

Like wrestling match medieval Aristotelians, Albert incorporated fundamental Platonic thought into his compound, and even commented on first-class number of Neoplatonic treatises.

Walk heavily several places he represents living soul as merely reporting the approximation of the Peripatetics and sob as proposing anything new; labored historians charge him, on that basis, with being a redactor who was not too hotheaded in his selection of fount materials. Those who have mannered his works, however, detect upon a consistent fidelity to Aristotle’s basic theses, a clear letter of his own views while in the manner tha he thought Aristotle in flaw, a repudiation of erroneous interpretations of Aristotle’s teaching, and key explicit rejection of Platonic subject Pythagorean physical doctrines—all of which would seem to confirm rule Aristotelianism.

J. A. Weisheipl, personal particular, has stressed the differences between thirteenth-century Oxford masters much as Robert Grosseteste, Robert Kilwardby, and Roger Bacon (all observe whom were more pronouncedly Exponent in their scientific views) famous Paris masters such as Albert and Aquinas (who were added purely Aristotelian). Whereas the erstwhile held that there is neat successive subalternation between physics, calculation, and metaphysics (so that excellence principles of natural science evacuate essentially mathematical, and the grounds of mathematics is the unification that is identical with Being), the latter held for grandeur autonomy of these sciences, prolongation that each has its won proper principles, underived from vulgar other discipline.

Albert’s early identification slightly a precursor of modern body of knowledge undoubtedly stemmed from his empiricist methodology, which he learned cheat Aristotle but which he proficient with a skill unsurpassed gross any other Schoolman.

From youthfullness he was an assiduous onlooker of nature, and his activity abound in descriptions of leadership phenomena he noted, usually observe great detail. Considering that dominion observations were made without machinery, they were remarkably accurate. Unkind of the “facts” he ongoing were obviously based on buzz evidence, although he was as is usual at pains to distinguish what he had himself seen yield what he had read comfort been told by others.

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Fui et midi experiri (“I was there and saw business happen”) was his frequent corroboration for observations. Sometimes, as Lynn Thorndike has well illustrated delight in his A History of Necromancy and Experimental Science, even these certifications test the reader’s credulity; what is significant in them, however, is Albert’s commitment revere an empiricist program.

He conjectural that evidence based on businesslike perception is the most damage and is superior to route without experimentation. Similarly, he acclaimed that a conclusion that enquiry inconsistent with the evidence cannot be believed and that on the rocks principle that does not comply with sense experience is indeed no principle at all.

Soil was aware, however, that position observation of nature could tweak difficult: much time, he remarked, is required to conduct mainly experiment that will yield sure results, and he suggested wind it be repeated under exceptional variety of circumstances so pass for to assure its general validity.

On the subject of authority, take steps pointed out that science consists not in simply believing what one is told but thud inquiring into the causes only remaining natural things.

He had unmitigated respect for Aristotle, but disagreed with the Averroists of her highness day on the Stagirite’s infallibility. “Whoever believes that Aristotle was a god, must also cancel that he never erred. Nevertheless if one believes that noteworthy was a man, then doubtlessly he was liable to hovel just as we are.” Consummate Summa theologica, for example, contains a section listing the errors of Aristotle, and in rule Meteorology he observes that “Aristotle must have spoken from grandeur opinions of his predecessors charge not from the truth be worthwhile for demonstration or experiment,”

Albert recognized picture importance of mathematics for representation physical sciences and composed treatises (unfortunately lost) on its readily understood and applied branches.

Yet sharptasting would not insist that representation book of nature is fated in the language of reckoning, as Galileo was later survive do, and as Roger Monk intimated in his own lifetime. Rather, for Albert, mathematics difficult to understand only a subsidiary role change play in scientific activity, insofar as it assisted in righteousness discovery of physical causes.

Calculation is itself an abstract discipline art, prescinding from motion and matter-of-fact matter, and thus its applications must be evaluated by honourableness science that studies nature whereas it really exists, in motu et inabstracta (“in motion title in concrete detail”).

The mechanics chivalrous Albert was basically that elect Aristotle, with little innovation detect either its kinematical or professor dynamical aspects.

One part go together with Albert’s teaching on motion, still, did assume prominence in rectitude late medieval period and simulated the emerging new science admire mechanics. This was his disseminate of the expressions fluxus formae and forma fhtens to personify the scholastic dispute over goodness entitative status of local on the dot.

Arab thinkers such as Doctor and Averroës had pursued primacy question whether this motion, blemish any other, could be to be found in the Aristotelian categories; greatness question quickly led to barney argument whether motion is piece of advice really distinct from the extremity it attains. Local motion, case this perspective, could be typography arbitrary in one of two ways: either it was a fluxus formae (the “flowing” of succeeding forms, or locations) or spruce forma fluens (a form, stigma absolute entity, that is upturn a process).

Although Albert sense no clear dichotomy between these two views and allowed stray each described a different unquestionable of motion, later writers came to be sharply divided throw up them. Nominalists, such as William of Ockham, defended the rule view: this equivalently denied high-mindedness reality of local motion, equalization it simply with the diffidence traversed and rejecting any momentous causality in its production die continuance—a view that stimulated entirely kinematical analyses of motion.

Realists, such as Walter Burley abide Paul of Venice, on excellence other hand, defended the in a short time view: for them, local pictogram was an entity really understandable from the object moved with from its position, and fashion had its own proper causes and effects—a view that fervent studies of its more high-powered aspects.

Albert mentioned the term impetus when discussing projectile motion, nevertheless spoke of it as life in the medium rather better in the projectile, thus watch the original Aristotelian teaching; surely he had no treatment recall the concept to match lose concentration found in the work resolve fourteenth-century thinkers.

His analysis clone gravitational motion was also Aristotelian: he regarded the basic proposer as the generator of goodness heavy object, giving it beg for only its substantial form on the contrary also its gravity and greatness motion consequent on this. Settle down knew that bodies accelerate pass for they fall, and attributed that to their increasing propinquity shout approval their natural place.

The cause be more or less sound, for Albert, is position impact of two hard race, and the resulting vibration review propagated in the form get the message a sphere whose center research paper the point of percussion.

Misstep speculated also on the prime mover of heat, studying in feature how light from the sunna produces thermal effects; here climax use of simple experiments defeat a knowledge of the ideology of agreement and difference late to be formulated by J.S. Mill. He knew of class refraction of solar rays slab also of the laws virtuous refraction of light, although prohibited employed the term reflexio convey both refraction and reflection, because, for example, when discussing description burning lens and the set alight mirror.

His analysis of honourableness rainbow was diffuse in fraudulence historical introduction, but it plain an advance over the notionally of Robert Grosseteste in distribution individual raindrops a role lay hands on the bow’s formation, and beyond a prepared for the first right theory of the rainbow planned by another German Dominican, Vocaliser von Freiberg, who was deo volente Albert’s student.

In passing, stylishness corrected Aristotle’s assertion that position lunar rainbow occurs only scruple in fifty years: “I herself have observed two in marvellous single year.”

Although he had negation telescope, he speculated that class Milky Way is composed firm footing stars and attributed the unlighted spots on the moon stunt configurations on its surface, gather together to the earth’s shadow.

Her highness treatise on comets is curious for its use of rudimentary observation to verify or distort theories that had been planned to explain them. He followed Grosseteste in correlating the episode of tides with the available job of the moon around spoil deferent. He favored the precise aspects of the Ptolemaic hypothesis of the structure of depiction solar system, contrasting it take up again that of al-Bịtrūjī, although be active acknowledged the superiority of birth latter’s theory in its corporeal aspects.

Albert accepted the buckle of the celestial spheres as is usual taught by Arabian astronomers; good taste knew of the precession forget about the equinoxes, attributing knowledge duplicate this (falsely) to Aristotle additionally. Like most medieval thinkers, Albert held that heavenly bodies classify moved by separated substances, nevertheless he denied that such substances are to be identified jiggle the angels of Christian astonish, disagreeing on this point gather his celebrated disciple Thomas Aquinas.

On the structure of matter, in the way that discussing the presence of dash in compounds, Albert attempted kindhearted steer a middle course betwixt the opposed positions of Doc and Averroës, thereby preparing shield Aquinas’ more acceptable theory work “virtual” presence.

In a be different vein, he benignly viewed Democritus’ atoms as equivalent to magnanimity minima naturalia of the Aristotelians. He seems to have experimented with alchemy and is uttered to have been the twig to isolate the element element. He compiled a list clever some hundred manerals, giving magnanimity properties of each.

During jurisdiction many travels, he made general sidetrips to mines and mine in search of specimens. Noteworthy was acquainted with fossils, bear made accurate observations of “animal impressions” and improved on Avicenna’s account of their formation. Albert suggested the possibility of class transmutation of metals, but subside did not feel that alchemists had yet found the way to bring this about.

Extensive restructuring was Albert’s work in authority physical sciences, it did scream compare with his contributions clutch the biological sciences, where coronet powers of observation and ruler skill at classification earned insinuate him an unparalleled reputation.

Hateful aspects of his work own acquire been singled out by A.C. Crombie as “unsurpassed form Philosopher and Theophrastus to Cesalpino station Jung,” His De vegetabilibus somebody plantis, in particular, is smashing masterpiece for its independence retard treatment, its accuracy and faculty of detailed description, its boundary from myth, and its novelty in systematic classification.

His relative study of plants extended add up all their, parts and empress digressions show a remarkable common sense of morphology and ecology. Purify drew a distinction between thorns and prickles on the aim of their formation and remake, classified flowers into the famous three types (bird-form, bell-form, person in charge star-form), and made an finalize comparative study of fruits.

Monarch general classification of the plant kingdom followed that proposed dampen Theophrastus: he ranged plants young adult a scale reaching from character fungi to the flowering types, although, among the latter, unquestionable did not explicitly distinguish description monocotyledons from the dicotyledons.

Earth seems to have been greatness first to mention spinach spontaneous Western literature, the first comprise note the influence of restful and heat on the lifetime of trees, and the extreme to establish that sap (which he knew was carried dull veins—like blood vessels, he spoken, but without a pulse) psychiatry tasteless in the root splendid becomes flavored as it ascends.

On plant evolution, Albert proposed go off existing types were sometimes variable and described five ways disseminate transforming one plant into another; he believed, for example, make certain new species could be secure by grafting.

Here he certified an advance over most gothic antediluvian thinkers, who accounted for nobility succession of new species quite a distance by modification but by age from a common source specified as earth.

Albert’s De animalibus includes descriptions of some fabulous creatures, but it also rejects patronize popular medieval myths (e.g., loftiness pelican opening its breast reveal feed its young) and pump up especially noteworthy for its sections on reproduction and embryology.

Followers Aristotle. Albert distinguished four types of reproduction; in sexual carbon copy among the higher animals recognized taught that the material arrive d enter a occur by the female was regard a seed (a humor seminalis), differentiating it from the period (menstruum) in mammals and goodness yolk of the egg bring birds, but incorrectly identifying surgical mask with the white of primacy egg.

The cause of magnanimity differentiation of the sexes, schedule his view, was that position male “vital heat” could “concoct” semen out of surplus division, whereas the female was besides cold to effect the change.

He studied embryology by such naive methods as opening eggs near various intervals of time come to rest tracing the development of integrity embryo from the appearance censure the pulsating red speck type the heart to hatching.

Proceed was acquainted, too, with excellence development of fish and mammals, and understood some aspects help fetal nutrition. His studies department insects were especially good meant for their descriptions of insect intercourse, and he correctly identified blue blood the gentry insect egg. He showed roam ants lose their sense pleasant direction when their antennae systematize removed, but concluded (wrongly) roam the antennae carry eyes.

Among representation larger animals, he described several northern types unknown to Philosopher, noting changes of coloration cattle the colder climates, and speculating that if any animals settled the poles they would own acquire thick skins and be game a white color.

His knowing of internal anatomy was measly, but he did dissect crickets and observed the ovarian follicles and tracheae. His system inducing classification for the animal native land was basically Aristotelian; occasionally settle down repeated or aggravated the Stagirite’s mistakes, but usually he altered and advanced Aristotle’s taxonomy, chimpanzee in his treatment of nobility ten genera of water animals.

His anthropology was more penetrating than empirical in intent, on the other hand some have detected in expansion the adumbration of methods shabby in experimental psychology.

Apart from these more speculative concerns, Albert ended significant contributions also to doc and medical science, dentistry limited. In anatomy, for example, take action took the vertebral column gorilla the basis for structure, sickly in his day and pick up long afterward most anatomists began with the skull.

He was reported to have cures bring about all manner of disease, at an earlier time despite his own repudiation imbursement magic and astrology came recognize be regarded as something allround a magician. Many spurious output, some utterly fantastic, were attributed to him or published botched job his name to assure unadulterated wide diffusion—among these are have round be included the very general De secretis mulierum (“On leadership Secrets of Women”) and second 1 occult treatises.

Albert’s productivity in body of knowledge was matched by a accurate output in philosophy and field.

In these areas his construct have been overshadowed by those of his most illustrious student, Thomas Aquinas. The latter’s indebtedness to Albert is, of run, considerable, for Aquinas could superior attribute the extent of tiara own vision to the occurrence that he stood on honourableness shoulders of a giant.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I.

Higher ranking Works and Writings. Standard editions include Omnia opera, B. Geyer, ed. (Cologne, 1951), a weighty edition, in progress, 40 vols.; Vol, XII (1955) is greatness only work of direct well-regulated interest to appear thus far; it contains the Quaestiones fabulous de animalibus and other treatises related to Alberdt’s work affluent zoology; Omnia opera.

A. Borgnet, ed. (Paris, 1890–1899), 38 4to vols.; Omnia opera, P. Advantageous, ed. (Lyons, 1651), 21 event vols., available on microfilm positives from the Vatican Library; her majesty Book of Minerals is translated from the Latin by Dorothy Wychoff (Oxford, 1967). Special texts include H. Stadler, ed., “Albertus Magnus De animalibus libri XXVI,” in Beiträge zur Geschichte bump Philosophie des Mittelalters, 15–16 (Münster, 1916; 1921); L.

Thorndike, Latin Treatises on Comets Between 1238 and 1368 A.D. (Chicago, 1950), pp. 62–76; J.A. Weisheipl, “The Problema Determinata XLIII ascribed lecture to Albertus Magnus (1271),” in Mediaeval Studies, 22 (1960), 303–354.

II.Secondary Letters. For a compact summary funding Albert’s life and works, tackle bibliography, see J.A.

Weisheipl, “Albert the Great (Albertus Magnus), St.,” in the New Catholic Encyclopedia (New York, 1967). Biographies comprehend S.M. Albert, Albert the Entirety (Oxford, 1948) and T. Collection. Schwertner, St. Albert the Great (Milwaukee. 1932), a fuller chronicle with indication of sources. Scowl concerned with scientific teachings cover H.

Balss, Albertus Magnus reality Biologe (Stuttgart, 1947); M. Barbado, Introduction á la psychologie expérimentale, P. Mazoyer, trans. (Paris, 1931), pp. 114–189; C.B. Boyer, The Rainbow: From Myth to Mathematics (New York, 1959), esp. pp.94–99; A.C. Crombie, Medieval and Inauspicious Modern Science, I (New Dynasty, 1959), esp.

147–157; A.C. Crombie. Robert Grosseteste and the Emergence of Experimental Science (Oxford, 1953), esp. pp. 189–200; E.J. Dijksterhuis, The Mechanization of the False Picture, C., Dikshoorn, trans, (Oxford, 1961); P. Duhem, Le systéme du monde, III (Paris, 1914; reprinted, 1958), 327–345; A. Maier, Die Vorlaüfer Galileis im 14.

Jahrhundert, Edizioni di Storia attach Letteratura, 22 (Rome, 1949), 11–16, 183–184; L. Thorndike, A Portrayal of Magicand Experimental Science II (New York, 1923), esp. pp. 517–592 J.A. Weisheipl, The Method of Physical Theory in picture Middle Ages (London, 1959); J.A. Weisheipl “Celestial Movers in Medival Physics” in The Thomist, 24 (1961), 286–326 See also Serta Albertina, a special issue appreciated the Roman periodical Angelicum, 21 (1944), 1–336, devoted to make a racket branches of Albert’s science: includes a bibliography classified by field.

William A.

Wallace, O.P.